View source for Category:Controlled substances

A '''controlled substance''' is a medicine or other substance whose manufacture, distribution, prescribing, and possession are restricted by federal law because of its potential for abuse, dependence, or diversion. In the United States the framework is the [[wikipedia:Controlled Substances Act|Controlled Substances Act]] (CSA) of 1970, which established five numbered schedules and the [[wikipedia:Drug Enforcement Administration|Drug Enforcement Administration]] (then the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs) as the federal enforcement authority. The schedules are ordered by the agency's judgment of decreasing abuse potential and increasing accepted medical use: Schedule I (no accepted medical use, high abuse potential; not a clinical category in routine prescribing); Schedule II (accepted medical use, high abuse potential; most opioid analgesics, the medical psychostimulants); Schedule III (accepted medical use, moderate abuse potential; buprenorphine, anabolic steroids, ketamine, codeine combinations); Schedule IV (accepted medical use, lower abuse potential; benzodiazepines, Z-drug hypnotics, modafinil, tramadol); Schedule V (accepted medical use, lowest abuse potential; pregabalin, lacosamide, low-dose codeine cough preparations).

The federal scheduling framework consolidates and replaces a longer history of piecemeal regulation. The [[wikipedia:Pure Food and Drug Act|Pure Food and Drug Act]] of 1906 required honest labelling of patent medicines but did not restrict their sale. The [[wikipedia:Harrison Narcotics Tax Act|Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] of 1914, framed as a revenue measure that required tax stamps for opium and coca derivatives, was used by the Bureau of Internal Revenue to construct a de facto federal prohibition of opioid use outside acute therapeutic care. The [[wikipedia:Marihuana Tax Act of 1937|Marihuana Tax Act]] of 1937 added cannabis to the same framework. The 1956 [[wikipedia:Narcotic Control Act|Narcotic Control Act]] increased criminal penalties; the 1965 [[wikipedia:Drug Abuse Control Amendments|Drug Abuse Control Amendments]] added the depressants and stimulants outside the opiate group. The CSA of 1970 superseded all of these into the modern five-schedule system, and the parallel United Nations conventions (the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic) established international parallel frameworks.

The criteria the DEA applies in scheduling a new substance, set out in 21 U.S.C. § 811, consider eight factors: actual or relative potential for abuse, scientific evidence of pharmacological effect, current scientific knowledge of the substance, history and current pattern of abuse, scope, duration, and significance of abuse, risk to public health, psychic or physiological dependence liability, and whether the substance is an immediate precursor of one already scheduled. The DEA's judgment is informed by the FDA's medical and scientific evaluation, by international treaty obligations, and by the recommendations of advisory committees. The scheduling process is administrative and can be initiated by the DEA, by the FDA, or by petition; emergency scheduling provisions allow rapid placement of new psychoactive substances (the synthetic cannabinoids, the novel synthetic opioids including the fentanyl analogues) onto Schedule I in response to outbreak data.

The clinical-pharmacology implications of controlled-substance status are concrete. Schedule II prescriptions cannot be refilled and require written or electronic prescription; Schedule III and IV prescriptions can be refilled up to five times within six months; Schedule V often requires only standard prescription. State [[wikipedia:Prescription drug monitoring program|prescription drug monitoring program]] (PDMP) reporting is required for Schedule II through IV in most states. Pharmacy security, dispensing documentation, and inventory tracking are required at every level, with the tightest controls on Schedule II. The clinician's [[wikipedia:Drug Enforcement Administration#DEA Number|DEA registration]] is required to prescribe any Schedule II through V substance, with the X-waiver for buprenorphine prescription for opioid use disorder eliminated in 2023 in favour of broad DEA-registration-only authority.

The clinical pharmacology of contemporary controlled-substance prescribing has been shaped by the United States [[wikipedia:Opioid epidemic|opioid epidemic]] of the past three decades. The 1996 introduction and aggressive marketing of controlled-release oxycodone (OxyContin) by Purdue Pharma, the parallel rise in opioid-prescription volumes through the 2000s, the emergence of heroin and then illicit fentanyl as overdose-mortality drivers from approximately 2010 and 2013 onwards, the documented role of pharmaceutical-company sales practices in driving over-prescribing, and the resulting decline in U.S. life expectancy attributable to overdose mortality have together produced a regulatory environment in which controlled-substance prescribing carries career and licensing consequence in addition to clinical responsibility. The contemporary clinician's controlled-substance prescription is documented, monitored, and audited in ways that did not exist twenty years ago.

== Subcategories indexed ==

By schedule (with brief sample medicines; comprehensive lists at each schedule's page):

* '''Schedule I''' (no accepted medical use in the U.S.; not a clinical prescribing category): cannabis (federally Schedule I despite state-level rescheduling), [[wikipedia:Heroin|heroin]], LSD, psilocybin, MDMA, peyote, several novel synthetic psychoactives
* '''[[:Category:Schedule_II_controlled_substances|Schedule II]]''': most opioid analgesics ([[Morphine|morphine]], [[Oxycodone|oxycodone]], [[Hydrocodone|hydrocodone]], [[Fentanyl|fentanyl]], [[Methadone|methadone]]), the medical psychostimulants (methylphenidate, amphetamines, lisdexamfetamine), cocaine (medical topical use), the Schedule II barbiturates (pentobarbital, secobarbital), phencyclidine, nabilone
* '''[[:Category:Schedule_III_controlled_substances|Schedule III]]''': buprenorphine and buprenorphine-naloxone (Suboxone), Tylenol with Codeine, anabolic-androgenic steroids, ketamine, esketamine (intranasal Spravato), butalbital combinations including Fiorinal, dronabinol
* '''[[:Category:Schedule_IV_controlled_substances|Schedule IV]]''': benzodiazepines (diazepam, lorazepam, alprazolam, clonazepam, midazolam, temazepam, others), Z-drug hypnotics (zolpidem, eszopiclone, zaleplon), modafinil and armodafinil, tramadol, phentermine, carisoprodol, suvorexant
* '''Schedule V''' (when this page is built; comprehensive list at the page): pregabalin, lacosamide, low-dose codeine cough preparations, brivaracetam, ezogabine, atomoxetine (note: atomoxetine is not actually controlled)

== Notes on scope ==

The boundary of this category is "medicine placed in any schedule of the U.S. Controlled Substances Act." International parallel classifications are mentioned on individual medicine pages where they differ substantially from the U.S. designation. The category does not extend to substances of abuse that are not scheduled (alcohol; nicotine; caffeine; several over-the-counter compounds with abuse potential such as dextromethorphan and pseudoephedrine, both subject to non-CSA restrictions on quantity and identity at the pharmacy counter). The "narcotic" terminology used in older clinical and regulatory contexts is a near-synonym for "controlled substance" but the contemporary practice is to use the schedule designation rather than the narcotic label.

== About these pages ==

This category page is an encyclopedia article about its subject. The actual index of medicines belonging to the category is generated automatically by the wiki engine, from category-membership declarations on the individual medicine pages, and appears at the foot of the page below the references.

== References ==

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